Gizmo is the easiest way to learn (2024)

preference for sweetness: sweet taste linked too high energy food. Babies can distinguish between different types of sugars and would consume more fructose (present in ripe fruit- which would of been common for ancestors)

preference for salt: salts essential for many cell functions. Preference for salt appeared around 4 months. Salt preference is innate as breast milk I sow in salt so it isn learned.

preference for fat: high calorie food- not so accessible for ancestors. So learning to prefer high calorie foods would be an advantage to aid survival

neophobia- an innate unwillingness to eat new or unfamiliar foods. most pronounced between 2/6 years (at the time the child would begin to explore and come into contact with new food) without the help of the parents decisions, neophobia is advantageous to prevent consuming unsafe substances.

taste aversion- according to seligmans theory of biological preparedness, we acquire taste aversions or fears more quickly than others. these are genuinely to objects or situations that posed a threat to our ancestors. human are genetically wired to learn taste aversions that make us less likely to eat food that has gone bad or is toxic.

(+) research support- link between stress and eating behaviour. torres et al reviewed relevant studies and concluded that human have A tendency to prefer high fat foods during periods of stress. These findings suggest that a preference for fat may have provided energy to fuel a more effective fight or flight response in stressful times- this preference was adaptive for survival of our ancestors

(-) doesnt explain why those of different cultures have different food preferences

(+) research support - Newborn babies shows an acceptance response the first time they taste something sweet with a slight smile and licking their lips. This is an innate response and suggests an evolutionary preference for sweet foods.

(-) don't always apply to modern day. vicarious reinforcement is an important factor in shaping our food preferences as we are influenced by parents/peers. our ancestors would have gained from fatty foods, but we now avoid these because of the dangers of heart disease and obesity. Health concerns change our preferences.

classical conditioning: flavour-flavour learning. We develop a preference for a new food because of its association with a flavour we already like. That’s why porridge is more likeable when sugar is added. In the end we learn to enjoy the food without the added flavour

operant conditioning: when children receive a reward for their food preferences. sometimes it’s difficult to do with foods such as vegetables

social learning theory explains the social influence in terms of modelling and imitation. Children will acquire food preferences from role models

If a model appears to be enjoying the food or being rewarded the child seems to imitate the preferences for that food.

Family influences- gatekeeper of the child

peer influences- birch found children change there preference of vegetable after observing the other children.

media influences- tv adverts, unhealthy foods are often marked by fun related themes and characters the children may identify with.

culture influences- when around the family table we learn when what and how much to eat. cultural rules of preferences are powerful enough to overcome innate aversions.

cultural norms- for example a Sunday dinner

meat eating- some cultures have a cultural tradition to eat every part of the animal(France) ,such as offal, whereas other countries would never (USA)

culture and learning- culture influences which food parents give to children. we associate foods as adults with security and happy experiences while growing up, normally culture specific food.

(+) jansen and tenny- They gave children either an energy-dense or energy-dilute yogurt drink they had never tasted before. The most preferred taste was the energy-dense drink taken at the same time as a teacher who praised it and showed clear signs of enjoyment. learned through vicarious reinforcement.

(-) This theory suggests that the only answer to our eating behaviour is our social ability. Therefore, it overlooks other approaches such as the cognitive and biological. Our thought processes might have an effect on the way we eat and therefore this approach is reductionist

The duel-centre model of eating=

lateral hypothesis- the feeding centre. The one switch of the hypothalamus. The LH detects levels of glucose in the liver, and is only activated when glucose falls below the norms, causing a person to become hungry. Neurotransmitter called neuropeptide is secreted (associated with hunger)

ventro-medial hypothalamus- satiety centre. The off switch of eating behaviour. triggered when glucose increases over the norm. And the person feels full. Damage to it leads to continuous eating.

Ghrelin- secreted in stomach. It’s a hunger stimulant. Levels detected by receptors in hypothalamus (arcute nucleus). When levels rise beyond a set point the nucleus rises less neuropeptides

leptin- secreted by fat cells. Hunger suppressant. once Levels increase past a certain point, they feel full. Deleted by the VMH.

Holland et al- found a concordance rate of 56% for MZ and 5% for DZ. this suggests that genes must have some influence on the development of AN.

(-) However, the concordance rate for MZ twins is not 100% which suggests that other factors must also be involved. In addition MZ twins may be treated more similarly than DZ twins and this may help to explain the higher concordance rate- environmental factors

One candidate-gene association study sequenced 152 suspected candidate genes in a large sample and found one gene (epoxide hydrolase 2) to be associated with AN. This gene codes for an enzyme involved in the metabolism of cholesterol= abnormally high levels of cholesterol have been found in AN sufferers

Bailer et al. gave amphetamines to participants to increase the release of dopamine. They found that healthy participants reported euphoria, but AN patients experienced anxiety. This suggests that individuals with AN might restrict eating to reduce anxiety

Minunhin identified 4 features of what’s called a typical ‘anorexia family‘

focuses on mother and daughter relationship

enmeshment- when they are overly involved with each other. Lack of leadership and roles. Identities get mixed up. Therefore daughter gets anorexia to have her own independence

overprotectiveness- constantly involved with protecting each other. Mom sees herself as personal sacrifice. Therefore she blames daughter with anorexia.. which makes it worse

Rigidity- family doesnt see a need to change. So when something happens the family goes into a crisis. For example, the daughter wants her own independence and her mom wont allow it. Leading to dysfunctional behaviours (anorexia)

conflict avoidance- family refuses to accept any conflict which worsens behaviour untill a crisis occurs. So the daughter will refuse to eat and the family refuses to accept it.

Autonomy and control- when the daughter cant have that she turns to unhealthy behaviours.

Social learning theory states that we learn behaviours (including eating behaviours) by imitating successful role models.

observational learning can take place, and that this is reinforced vicariously. Vicarious reinforcement occurs when we see another person (the role model) rewarded for a particular behaviour. This observation of the consequences of their behaviour makes it more likely a person will imitate their behaviour (food restriction rewarded)

important role models might be mothers, peers or celebrities in the media. Research has shown that mothers who complain about their weight are more likely to have children who have their own weight concerns. It has also been shown that the portrayal of thin models on television and in magazines is a significant contributory factor in body image concerns and pressure for Western adolescent girls to want to be thin.

grabe et al. (2008) found that exposure to media images portray the thin-ideal body is related to body image concerns forwomen.

Girls were shown images of Barbie dollsAnother group of girls shown images of Emme dolls (normal weight) In comparison, girls who viewed Barbie dolls were more dissatisfied with their body shape and had lower self-esteem

Cognitive distortions- AN sufferer has disturbed perceptions of their own body image. These perceptions are faulty and biased ways of thinking that means an AN sufferer perceives themselves inaccurately.

irrational beliefs- Thoughts that are likely to interfere with a person's happiness - these thoughts can defy logic and rational sense. Such s believing your double the weight and therefore creating unhealthy habits

perfectionism (irrational belief)- the view that the AN sufferer has to meet their most demanding standards at all times(failure = judgement)

cognitive inflexibility- AN sufferers lack an ability to change their thought processes

Cognitive interpersonal maintenance model- find it difficult to switch tasks and tend to use the same skills in tasks when not needed. When weight is lost they keep it consistent.

Family studies - Chaput et al comparing BMI between family members show that concordance rates for first degree relatives are 20-50%, which indicates a moderate degree of heritability

Nan et al (2012), a meta-analysis of 12 twin studies, involving over 8,000 MZ twins and 10,000 DZ twins, showing heritability of BMI for all age categories, ranging from 61-80%. Environmental changes overtime did not appear to have a big impact on each individuals weight

Dopamine- Overeating could be an attempt to activate the dopamine reward system that provides feelings of pleasure, suggesting obesity operates neurochemically in similar ways to obesity

VMH is the control centre. When glucose levels go past a set point, the VMH is triggered, and the LH is inhibited. This makes the person feel full and stop eating. Therefore, it the mechanism is malfunctioning, an individual will not receive clear signals and may overeat when they feel full, resulting in obesity

Psychological explanations for obesity focus on obesity being caused by factors such as restrained eating (denying yourself certain foods) and disinhibition (overeating in response to stimuli such as emotionaldistress).

Herman and Mack- restraint theory= placing a cognitive boundary on food intake, and then indulging in reduced eating. The more restrained the more likely they were to eat more.

herman and polivy- the boundary model= dieters set themselves a boundary. There hunger levels are triggered earlier than the norms and there satiety levels are triggered after the norm.

DISINHIBITED eating- eating more than the usual bc you’re less strict on yourself. Can be triggered by mood and external (media/smells)

The spiral model-(heatherton and polivy), diets fail due to low elf esteem, perceptions of failure due to high expectations, vulnerability to DISINHIBITED eating, impacts self esteem

theory of ionic processes- the more you try not to think of something the more likely you are to actually think about them.

Successes- weight watchers offer regimes- boundary model. The diet zone may be closes to the hunger zone and therefore it stops eating less. Or allowing certain unhealthy foods to eat instead of cutting out.